Plato: Theory of Justice, Education, Ideal State, Soul and Philosopher King

Political Thought of Plato

Plato’s Political Thoughts is given in the Western Political section of UPSC PSIR Optional syllabus. Here we provide you Political Thought Of Plato. The learning objective of Western political thought of Plato is To gain knowledge about Plato’s ideas on state, government, Justice, Education, and Communism.

You can also check – Political Science Optional Notes

Introduction to Plato

Plato is known as the father of Political Philosophy.

If Socrates is known as the father of Philosophy (Ethics), who described the meaning of the ‘good life’, Plato is known as the ‘father of political philosophy’ because he was the 1st person to describe ‘what constitutes an ideal state.’ What constitutes a good political life? What is the idea behind the state? what are the ethics of the political class?

White Head “The entire western political thoughts was nothings but Footnotes to the Plato and Aristotle”.

Bertrand Russell in his book ‘A History of Western Philosophy’ say Plato is grater than Aristotle because Plato is a teacher and Aristotle was a product is Plato.

Emerson “Plato is Philosophy and Philosophy is Plato”.

Karl Popper “One can be either Platonic or Anti Platonic but one can never be Non Platonic.

Two events played a critical role in Plato’s shift towards Philosophy

1. Defeat of Athens: During his time there was great chaos in the political life of Athens there was one famous war ‘Peloponnesian War‘ in this war Sparta defeated Athens. Plato wanted to diagnose the root cause of the defeat of Athens and restore the glory of his motherland.
2. Death of Socrates: Athenian government condemned Socrates to death (by Hemlock – Poison drink) because of his teachings. He was accused of misleading the youth.

During this time there was democracy in Athens. This leads to the development of hatred towards democracy.

Plato called democracy as rule of Ignorants.

Every philosopher is the child of his/her own time. The execution of Socrates, the wisest man in Greece, filled Plato with contempt for democracy and believed that it had to be replaced by the rule of the wisest.

What is the biggest contribution of Plato as a thinker?

The biggest contribution of Plato is ‘The Theory of The Philosopher King.’ According to him, that state is ideal, where philosophers are the rulers. In the words of Plato, “Until philosophers are the rulers or rulers learn philosophy, there is no end to the predicament of human life.”

What is a State?

Aristotle defines the state as a self-sufficient entity. The state is an institution which has four features-

1. Territory
2. Sovereignty
3. Population
4. Government

Greek Society – Fundamental Problem in Athens

Greek society was divided into classes ( Master and Slave ). Greek society was not Egalitarian means they did not believe in equality between:

• Men and Men – Some men are Master and some are Slave
• Men and Women – Patriarchal Society
• Race – Racist/ Ethnocentric – Greeks consider others as “Barbarians” ( Uncivilised or Primitive ).
• Economic System – Agrarian Society – Slavery was the mode of Production.
• Intellectual context – Ancient Greece is known as the birthplace of Western Civilization.

According to Plato Athens was not a single city. There were two cities, the city of the rich and the city of the poor. The ruling class was extremely rich whereas the majority was poor. Hence despite patriotism, the morale of the people was down. Hence it became vulnerable to external threats.

Amartya Sen – India has Island of prosperity in the sea of Poverty

What Was the Reason Behind the Bad State of Athens?

According to Plato, the real factor behind such a state in Athens was ‘the ignorance’ of the ruling class.  They were ignorant about their responsibilities. They were ignorant of the fact that ‘public offices are not for private ends’ (corruption). Thus the lack of good governance is because of corruption and corruption is because of ignorance.
The ruling class in Athens was running after money and power because of wrong teaching of Sophist. It is because of their ignorance they think that money and power is the ultimate source of happiness. Since the ruling class was running after money and power others also followed them. Hence the entire society was corrupt. It made Athens internally weak and externally vulnerable! Hence Plato prescribed the institution of a Philosopher king.

What are the Problems in Running After Money and Power?

Money and power are limited in nature, hence bound to create conflict. According to Plato, we should run after the things which are unlimited and which are of permanent nature e.g. Knowledge, Character, Beauty.
Hence Plato’s prescription is the institution of the ‘Philosopher King.’

What is the fundamental difference between Western and Eastern civilisation?

Western – Emphasize on secular and material spheres.
Eastern – Made advancement in the Spiritual and Religious sphere

Evolution of Western Civilization

Ancient time- The characteristics of greek thinking is Rational ( that man has reason ) which led to Philosophy.
Medieval Age – Age of Religion – Known as age of Darkness in west.
Modern Age – Renaissance – Revival of Reason and beginning of Secularism.

Characteristic feature of Greek Thoughts

1. Rationalist – Using reason not religion to solve problem
2. Secular – Separation of religion and politics.
3. Humanist – Human centric thinking rather than God centric.

Rationalism is based on the assumption that man has reason. He can solve his problem with the application of reason and not seek solution in religion.

They ( Greek ) believed in God but separated the sphere of God/Religion from the Public ( they were secular )

The fundamental problem in Athens was Democracy because in democracy anyone can become ruler by lottery i.e. by vote. The solution was to end democracy or end the rule of ignorance and bring the rule of experts/ meritocracy.

Perspective of Plato as  a Thinker

He is a highly imaginative, romantic and utopian thinker. Plato is an idealist thinker. He suggests extreme solutions. Like abolishing family and private property. He was criticized for his radical ideas by Aristotle.

• Idealist and Materialist: We differentiate Idealist and Materialist on the basis of conception of reality.
• Idealists: For them, Idea is real and politics and ethics should not be separated eg. Gandhi, Socrates & Plato.
• Materialist: For materialists, the matter is real eg. Karl Marx. In the words of Karl Marx, “Idea/Ideology is false consciousness.” 
• Materialist and realists: Realism is used in the specific sense in Political theory. Machiavelli is known as the ‘father of Realism’. He was the 1st person to establish that politics is not ethics.
• Realists: Machiavelli. In the words of Machiavelli, “In politics, ends justify the means.”

Source of Influence on Plato

• Socrates: Theory of Knowledge and dialectics – ‘Knowledge is Virtue.’ which means ‘ignorance is vice.’
• Pythagoras:
  • According to Pythagoras, the entire universe is based on Mathematical Principles.
  • Theory of Souls. The soul is an Indian concept not used by Western scholars, it is believed that Pythagoras got the idea of the soul from India.
• Heraclitus: According to him “Change is the characteristic of this world.” ” No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it’s not the same river and he’s not the same man.”
• Parmenides: Along with change, continuity/permanence is also the characteristic of this world.
• Anaximander: Reality is abstract and Eternal.

Plato’s Works

The three most important works of Plato are:

• ‘The Republic’ – Magnum opus (most important work) of Plato. He discusses the constitution of his ideal state. Ideal state means Just state.
• ‘The Statesman’ and
• ‘The Laws’– Plato’s 2nd base state where the rule of law exists. Political Science is concerned

Apart from these works, he has written a number of other smaller books.

What is Republic

Republic – where the head of state is chosen on the basis of worth and merit and not birth.

Plato’s Theory of Idea

Plato is Idealist he wants to create an ideal state. To create an ideal state, one needs the idea of the ideal state.

Since idea cannot be seen, it can only be understood by the use of reason. Hence the person in whom ‘Reason’ dominates i.e. Philosopher King can create, the ideal state.

Concet of Idea

Plato’s theory of Idea is foundation of his Philosophical system. His theory of idea is based on the Socrates’s Theory of Knowledge. Scholars have classified the reality into two types.

1. Matter: Matter is Physical so it can be understood through sensory organs like eyes, ears etc. e.g. Money.
2. Idea: Idea cannot be understood through the sensory organs. It can be understood only through the use of reason. e.g. Honesty.

Matter belongs to the world of change (given by Heraclitus ). Whereas Ideas belongs to the world of permanence. Idea is the perfect manifestation because it belongs to the world of God. Matter belongs to this world, this world is a world of imperfections.

Plato’s theory of idea emerges in the context of discussing what constitutes true knowledge ( Ultimate knowledge which cannot be challenged = Eternal ).

Characteristics of Idea

• Idea is permanent eg. idea of beauty.
• Idea is transcendental – which means the idea is beyond time and space.
• Idea is the ultimate reality.
• Idea is universal whereas the matter is particular – thus Plato is a universalist.
• Idea is autonomous or independent of matter.

Plato Idea of Good

Plato says that there was hierarchy even in the world of idea. But the most important/ultimate idea is the idea of Good. he compare idea of Good with the idea of the Sun, other thingh get light due to Sun similarly other idea get importance due to idea of Good.

Allegory of caves.

Idea is real and the matter is a shadow of Idea. He uses “Allegory of Cave” to show the difference between real knowledge and the illusion of knowledge.

Some persons are sitting in the cave (denotes Ignorance), with their hands are tied, so they cannot move out. Their back is towards the mouth of the cave.

Fire is burning inside the cave. When people and other objects, outside the cave pass through, they observe the shadow of these objects on the wall of the cave. Since they have not observed the real objects, they consider shadow as real.

Someone ( Teacher ) broke the chain of one person and push him out. He enters into the sunlight. Initially he feels pain in his eyes but later on realizes what he was observing was the illusion (shadow) of reality. He realizes that the real world is more beautiful than the world of illusions.

Sunlight is a symbol of real knowledge. Whereas fire cannot give real light. That person goes back inside the cave, and explains the reality, other person make fun of him. Other person are extremely reluctant to leave their bondages and to come out of ignorance.

It shows that people prefer to live in the den of ignorance, develop their comfort zone. The teacher or guide , will push these persons forcibly in the sunlight and gradually they also realize the reality.

Thus through the Allegory of Cave he shows that we have kept our souls in prison and we are reluctant to listen to our souls and in the absence of true knowledge we consider Illusion as Reality.

Ideal World vs Actual World

According to Plato we live in the actual world and due to ignorance we consider actual world as real. He wants that we should recognise that beyond the worldly goods, there is a world of ideas, Beyond the physical body there is a Soul. The satisfaction of the soul is important than satisfaction of body

“Reality is the shadow of Idea.” – Plato

Above statement comes from Plato’s theory of Ideas where he explains the nature of reality. Here the world reality is used for the world of matter, which we consider real because of our ignorance.

He has established that idea is the ultimate reality. The context of his theory of idea can be found in his concern with the state of Athens.

Plato has applied the theory of Knowledge to his understanding of reality.

According to Plato, Idea is the perfect manifestation and belongs to the world of permanence. (World of God). Money and power can bring satisfaction to the physical body but honesty brings satisfaction to our soul. According to him, we take worldly things as real and worldly pleasures as ultimate happiness, only because of our ignorance. To show that “reality is the shadow of idea”, he gives ‘Allegory of Cave.’ When we consider worldly pleasures as ultimate happiness, our position is similar to the prisoners in cave. However when we get true knowledge, symbolised by the sunlight, then only we will realise that what we consider real was just the illusion of reality. Thus Plato wants to teach the ruling class the meaning of true happiness. The real happiness constitute in serving the citizens, rather than fulfilling one’s self interest. It is our ignorance and short sightedness, if we assume that our interest is different from the interest of our people.

We can find remarkable similarity in the views of Plato and ancient Indian scholar Kautilya. Kautilya mentions in ARTHASASTRA, “In the happiness of the subjects, lies the happiness of the King.” We can also quote Pandit Nehru who held that – “Who will survive if India dies?”  the message is that if ruling class will continue to serve their interest at the interest of the people, they will harm their own interest in the long term.

Plato Theory of Justice

Justice is the most important concept in political philosophy. Since Political Philosophy is about State and state can continue so long people believe that state is Just because purpose of state to do justice. Hence Political Philosopher from Plato to Amartya Sen focus on idea of Justice. According to John Rawls, “Justice is the first virtue of social system, just like truth is the first virtue of any system of thought.” Justice is considered as precondition for ‘Harmonious co-existence.’

The Nature of Concept of Justice as Explained by Plato.

REPUBLIC is the most famous work of Plato where he gives the theory of Ideal state/ constitution of Ideal state. The subtitle of the republic is “Concerning Justice.” He treats the concept in the broad sense denoting the right conduct. His objective is to find out the idea of justice.

We can find similarity between Plato’s treatment of the concept of Justice and the Indian concept of Dharma. The Indian concept Dharma implies the right conduct. Indian texts describe the Dharma of each Varna (Class), it also describes Rajya Dharma. Plato in his theory of Justice also explains Justice in terms of duty of the different classes living in the state.

Methodology used by Plato

According to Plato, justice cannot involve the idea of harming someone. The idea of justice is linked to the satisfaction of soul, our soul is never peaceful when we harm someone. There is a possibility of wrong application because it is not easy to identify, who is our enemy and who is our friend. We may end up harming our true friend.

In deriving the theory of Justice, Plato has used the methodology of dialectics. He engages various characters in the dialogue and derives the meaning of Justice.

	Response of Plato
1. Cephalus ( Old man ): According to him justice means a) Doing one’s duties, B) Paying one’s dues	Plato accept Doing one’s duties as justice. But Paying one’s dues is not like returning a weapon to a mad man is not justice.
2. Polmarchus – (Son of Cephalus) – Paying dues means being Good to your friends and Harm to your enemy.	Doing good is justice but idea of justice can never be to harm someone. it is also not necessary we can identify who is our friend and who is enemy.
3. Thrasymachus ( a Sophist ) – Sophists represented the rival tradition of Socrates. According to Sophists, “Man in prior to Society.” Society is conventional, created by man for his convenience. It is natural for man to give preference to his self interest over the interest of the society. The means of good life is Power. Justice is the interest of the strong, it also means ‘Might is right.’ Those who are in power, whatever rules they make become justice. The ruling class makes rules in their own interest.  In many situations, it is preferable for man, not to follow rules. In this way man can serve his interest much better. Thus, we see the earliest idea of ‘Civil Disobedience’ in the works of Thrasymachus (Sophist character in REPUBLIC). According to him so long, laws serve our interest, we should follow the laws but there is nothing wrong in disobeying the law which go against our interest. So, the two prominent messages in the views of Thrasymachus are that power is a means for good life & it is not necessary to obey all the rules.	Plato is unable to provide a very strong counter argument to the thoughts of Thrasymachus. The reason being, Thrasymachus tells ‘What is true’. However Plato gives following arguments. 1] It is wrong to think that law made by sate are in the favour of ruling class. He held that ruling is an Art and Artist does not make art only for his pleasure. Since state does not make laws for its own benefit. 2] If we follow “Might is Right.”, there cannot be peace and harmony in the society. We should not forget that it is a necessity of man to live in the society. Nature has not made man self sufficient. It is natural for man to live in the society. 3] The values governing social life have to be based on reason, reason suggests that “Might is right” cannot be the principle of social life. 6] The soul of the person, who disobey the law can never be as peaceful as the soul of the person who follows law. 7] Power alone cannot give good life, reason is more important.
Glaucon’s arguments. [contractual theory / pragmatic theory. ] According to Glaucon, Justice is the interest of the weak. It means that those who were weak, could not defend themselves from the strong hence they came together, entered into the contract. Powerful agreed that they will not harm the weak. Weak agreed not to criticize powerful, in return of the protection they give.	Plato has two objections. 1] This theory suggests that state is contractual / artificial / man-made. 2] It is wrong to think that only weak require the state, both strong and weak require to live in the state. [ Plato uses State, Society, Justice interchangeably. ]

Features of Idea of Justice derived so far.

• Justice is a Duty
• Justice is a Virtue
• The laws of state are for good td of all.
• Laws made by state are in interest of people.

Justice is the feature of society. The idea of Justice has linkage with the satisfaction of the soul. Just soul is a happy soul. We need reason to understand Justice. Justice is necessary for good life. Hence Justice is a virtue. Justice is a virtue of all virtues. Or Supreme Virtue.

Achievement of all forms of excellence, is dependent on Justice. Why? When there is a justice, there is a peace and only then there can be excellence. Justice has to do with the duty. Just soul is a happy soul. Both weak and strong require justice, because even the strongest person is never strong enough.

Plato’s Own Theory of Justice.

In order to Plato’s Theory of Justice we have to understand Plato’s Theory of Soul given below

The purpose of Plato is to make Athens an Ideal State. (State is an individual writ large) Ideal state has to be based on THE IDEA of Justice. i.e. Perfect Idea of Justice.

Perfect Idea of Justice cannot be understood by observing the worldly ideas, because this is the world of imperfection. The perfect Idea of Justice will be God’s Idea of Justice. It can be understood  by listening to the soul. Soul is a part of god.

To define Just soul, we have to understand the purpose of Justice. Justice is a virtue / excellence. To achieve excellence, we need peace and harmony. The person in whom Reason dominates over Courage and Appetite can live in peace with others. Persons in whom Appetite dominates will always be in conflict with others. Thus the God’s idea of Justice is, reason should dominate over other two elements.

Idea of Justice in the state should be the application of the Idea of Justice found at the level of individual i.e. reason dominating Courage and Appetite. And it can be applied by categorizing people on the basis of the qualities of soul / Spiritual Qualities. There are three qualities: men of gold, silver, copper.

In just state Men of Gold will rule over Men of Silver and Copper. In just state every class will perform the function according to the spiritual qualities of the soul. Men of reason should rule/make laws. Men of Courage should ensure the security.  Men of Appetite should be involved in the task of production. All should perform the function for which they are naturally suited. In this way they will achieve excellence.

It is also important that they should not interfere in the task of the other. Justice results from each element in society doing its appropriate task and doing it well.

Thus the two fundamental principles of Justice are 1) Functional Specialization, it means proper stationing.  2) Non-interference.

In modern phrase, traditional theory of justice is equivalent to sense of duty.

Characteristics of Justice

Justice is supreme virtue. Justice is righteousness. Justice is quality of soul. Justice is duty. Justice results into harmony. Being Just means performing the task for which we are naturally suited. Just man does not interfere in the task of the other. Just state is where, society is divided into three classes, each perform the task according to the natural attributes and not interfering in the task of the other. Only in the just state excellence, peace and harmony is possible

Why all classes will accept the above theory of justice?

According to Plato, state is ‘inter-dependence.’ No one is self-sufficient. Man of reason will be dependent on, man of courage and man of appetite. Similarly the other classes are also dependent on each other.

Hence Plato believes that each class, will recognize the importance of the other class, and treat the members of other class with respect and feel obliged towards them.

Four cardinal virtues

Class	Dominant trait	Befitting virtue
Philosopher	Knowledge	Wisdom
Soldier	Emotion	Courage
Trader	Appetite	Temperance
Society		Justice

“State is individual writ large.” – Plato

In literal sense it means State is a bigger version of individual. If state is a CAPITAL letter, individual is small letter. He means to say that, nature of the state will depend on the character of the individuals.

He makes this statement when he is deriving the principles of Justice. He wants to derive the perfect idea of justice.  Perfect idea means God’s idea. Hence tries to understand the idea of ‘Just soul.’ Just man is in who Reason dominates over courage and appetite. He believes that principles applicable at the level of individual can be applied at the level of state. State is a bigger form of individual. Plato wants to convey that ethics and politics are not independent of each other. Principles of politics to be based on ethics.

Plato explains the idea of Just soul. Just soul is one in which Reason dominates over courage and appetite. Such souls are just because they can live in peace and harmony with the others. Only such persons are capable of leading life of virtue. Since Plato believes that State is a bigger form of individual, he recommends that the principles of justice found at the level of individual can be applied at the level of the state. Hence the just state is where, each person performs the task, according to the spiritual qualities of soul, not interfering in the task of the other. In Just state reason will dominate over courage and appetite, in the similar manner like in a just man Reason dominates over the other two elements.

Conclusion

Thus for Plato the principles governing life of a individual i.e. Ethics and principles governing the state i.e. Politics, cannot be different from each other. The idea of good life and the good political life cannot be separate from each other.

Plato wants to tell that nature of state will be shaped by the character of citizens living in the state. Hence he also suggests that “State does not come out of oak or rock, it inheres in the mind of the people living in the state.”

Thus for Plato Athens cannot become virtuous state, until and unless its citizens are virtuous. According to him, ‘temperance / self-control’ is also a virtue. Even Pandit Nehru held “Who will survive, if India dies?”

Plato’s Theory of Soul

Plato Theory of Education

Plato designs an education system based on various stages suited to the age of the students from childhood to adulthood. He also describes methods of elimination as higher stages of education are reached by human beings depending on the proportion of the three parts of their souls namely reason, spirit and appetite.

• Persons who are found suited to fulfil economic duties of the State are separated from the ones suited for Ruling and Military services.
• In the second process of elimination the persons suited for ruling are given special training to become what Plato calls ‘Philosopher Kings’ to rule his ‘Ideal State’.

Selection of the Philosopher King

“Virtue is Knowledge.”

Plato View on Democracy

In his work ‘The Republic’ Plato had practically condemned Democracy. He had developed the idea that all were not fit to rule and that only the philosophers who had been specially trained for the purpose should rule. He said this because it was Athenian Democracy which condemned his teacher Socrates to death.

Plato’s Ideal State

In Political Science, ‘The State’ is the most important concept around which the subject is built. Plato wants Athens to be an Ideal State. Ideal State Means the most suitable State for a human being to live in according to Plato. According to him, an Ideal State should be made up of three classes namely Ruling Class, Military Class and Economic Class. He gives details of how this is possible in his subsequent ideas of Justice and Education.

Plato’s Classification of Constitutions

Plato’s idea of a constitution is much different from the modern understanding of this term. By constitution he meant a particular way of life the people of a society have designed for their wellbeing. This included social customs, traditions, practices and also politics and government to oversee all these.

Plato discussed about constitutions as they existed in many parts of the world during his time and as they ought to be. He classified constitutions as

• Aristocracy,
• Timocracy,
• Oligarchy,
• Democracy
• Tyranny.

He also said that there is a tendency for Aristocracy to degenerate into Timocracy, Timocracy into Oligarchy, Oligarchy into Democracy and Democracy into Tyranny.

Assessment

Plato, though by no means the first philosopher, undoubtedly is one of the earliest to leave us a significant body of work. He spent most of his time asking and providing answers to questions that have always troubled people. Even centuries after his death, Plato is considered the most influential political philosopher of all time.

Important Terms

Philosophy – Love for knowledge ( search for truth/reality )
Philosopher – Who running after knowledge.
Theology – When you search answer using Religion.